Ways of seeing theory continued

Berger states that women are 'depicted in a different way to men because the "Ideal" spectator is always assumed to be male and the image of the woman is designed to flatter him'
Jib Fowles states 'in advertising males gaze and females are gazed at' (Fowles 1996)
This shows that both Mulvey and Berger feel that women are objects for men to look at, desire and seek pleasure from.
Paul Messaris (1997) says that female models in ads addressed to women 'treat the lens as a substitute for the eye of an imaginary male onlooker' adding that it could be argued that when these women look at these ads, they are actually seeing themselves as a man might see them. - This argument is saying that women know what they are portraying and that they are able to view themselves as how men want to perceive them to be in control of their desirability. 

Women and sex are used profusely in advertisement since it appeals to both women and men. Because other women want to be the women in advertisements.
This study looks at and compares how women in the media industry are used for the exact purpose that female nudity was used in traditional oil paintings. To be looked at, desired, envied and to be seen as desirable women by both men and women.

'Such ads appear to imply a male point of view, even though the intended viewer is often a woman. So the women who look at these ads are being invited to identify both with the person being viewed and with and implicit, opposite sex viewer' Messaris 1997

'Ways of Seeing' Theory

John Berger's 'Way of Seeing' Theory - 1972

Berger claims that representations of men and women in visual culture entice different "gazes" / ways in which they are looked at. He states that mean act and women appear. Men look at women and women watch themselves be looked at. The woman is usually posed in a way to please the viewer, her gaze is meant to entice the viewer, and this notion is the same in modern day advertisements and photographs. Berger comments that a woman unconsciously acts in a way knowing she is being viewed. Women are constantly being surveyed, not only by men but by other women, and by themselves.

John Berger’s “Ways of Seeing” is an in depth look on art, the way people view it and the influences that traditional oil paintings have had on society and modern day publicity. He looked at art and how historic paintings have adapted to modern day imagery and ideologies. Images are the most powerful communicator we have. There are things we cannot describe in words but that images can illustrate.

Two Step Flow Theory

Two Step Flow Theory - Lazarsfeld 1940

The two step flow theory was found after a study of the 1940 American election campaign. In 1940 Lazarsfeld etc. conducted the first full scale investigation of the effects of political mass media.

The theory says that media does not have an effect on individuals until someone they know and trust talks about it and makes it relevant. These people are the opinion leaders. We looked at this video to understand the theory.

The importance of social influence

Their research was originally based on the simplistic hypodermic needle model of media influence, whereby it was assumed that a message would be transmitted from the mass media to a 'mass audience', who would absorb the message.
Lazarsfelds investigations suggested that media effects were minimal, and that audiences did not respond to a campaign as such but were more influenced by a person they knew or an opinion leader.
The conception of a 'mass audience' was inadequate and misguided due to individuals having opinions towards a message.
Social influences had a more effect on the process of opinion formation and limited the media's effect. The research found that we are more likely to respond to people we trust and know.

Limited effects
The study by Lazarsfeld concluded that only 5% of people changed their voting behavior as a result of media messages.Audiences exposure to election broadcasts turned out to be a relatively poor predictor of their voting behavior. This view of media effects was confirmed in a variety of other investigations demonstrating that as individuals we are more likely to consume something if it is recommended by friends /family or people we know. For example what we are influenced to watch or listen to.

General conclusions
Conclusions follow from their research:

Our responses to media messages will be mediated through our social relationships, the effects of media messages being limited by interpersonal relationships and group membership. 

It is misleading to think of receivers as members of a 'mass audience' since that implies that they are all equal in their reception of media messages, whereas in fact some play a more active role than others.

Receiving a message does not imply responding to it; nor does non-reception imply non-response (since we may still receive the message via interpersonal communication)

There are some people amongst the media audience who act as opinion leaders they see themselves and are seen by others as having an influence on others.

Why is personal interaction more influential than the media?
The content and development of a conversation are less predictable than mass media messages. Consequently, the receiver cannot be as selective in advance as (s)he is able to be when choosing which media messages to attend to.

In a face-to-face conversation, the critical distance between the partners is less than in mass communication.

By direct questioning of the partner in the conversation, the assumptions underlying the conversation can be rapidly and accurately established, which is not so with mass communication.

In face-to-face interaction the communicator can rapidly adjust to the receiver's personality. (S)he has direct feedback as to the success of the communication, can correct misunderstandings and counter challenges. 

Laura Mulvey - Feminism

Laura Mulvey 1975 - Feminism - The 'male glaze'
Laura Mulveys concept looks at:
- How the audience view people who are presented in the media.
The male gaze typically focuses on:
- Emphasising curves of the female body.
- Referring to women as objects rather than people.
- The display of women is how men think they should be perceived.
- Female viewers, view the content through the eyes of a man.

The male gaze describes how the audience or viewer is put into the perspective of a heterosexual male. Mulvey states that in film women are typically the objects, rather than the possessors this is displayed by the control of the camera. The camera uses particular movements to perceive women in an idealistic view. Some women may disagree with this use of camera yet others may feel liberated. 

A feminist may see the male gaze as either a expression of unequal power between gazer and gazed, or as a conscious or subconscious attempt to develop that inequality, men are more powerful there for is OK to objectify.

voyeurism - Summarizing the women is displayed for the male gaze to provide pleasure in a sexual way. 

However women may want to be objectified and find this empowering. This objectification is a running theme in music videos and within all media elements. 

Binary Opposites Theory

Levi Strauss 1958. Binary opposites.

Levi Strauss came up with the idea of binary opposites. He believed that we understand words not solely based upon their meaning, but of our understanding of the opposites they reflect.

Our understanding of the word 'Hero' depends on our understanding of the word 'villain'. 

Within the media world binary opposites are used on a frequent basis. They are usually the basis of our understanding of a story as it is a conventional narrative and enables an equilibrium. Binary opposites are used in films to help plots, they are also used in music videos as part of a narrative to reinforce song lyrics.Levi Strauss’ theory links heavily with our ideological values of how we feel we should ‘perceive’ the world.

Why use binary opposites? 

- This theory enables us to have an understanding of a narrative before it has even begun.
- Representations  re-present them self to an audience to assure understanding, meaning and - - recognition from a text is understood.
- Having opposites within a text enables climax and interest

However more recently this can be challenged for example in Lady Gaga's music video Judas, or films that have a narrative with no clear protagonist. 

Other music video examples are... 

Uses And Gratification Theory

Blumler and Katz 1978

• The uses and gratification model represents a change in thinking. Researchers began to describe the effects of media from the point of view of the audience. It looks at the motives of people who use media. 
• Blumler & Katz (1974) argued that audience needs have social and psychological origins which generate certain expectations about the mass media, leading to differential patterns of media exposure which result in both the gratification of needs and in other (often unintended) consequences. This does assume an active audience making motivated choices.
• People are motivated by a desire to gratify certain needs. 
• The model is broken down in to four different needs
• Surveillance 
• Personal Identity
• Personal Relationships
• Diversion

Surveillance:

Surveillance is the idea that people feel better knowing what is going on in the world around them. Mass media is used to be more aware of the world and gratifying a desire for security and knowledge. The main source of this would be the news and newspapers. 

In relation to music videos surveillance can be in the ideology of the video. The example of this is Lily Allen's video - Hard out here. 

This video and song are talking about current issues that are happening in the music industry. 

Personal Identity:

Personal identity is how the media allows us to reaffirm our identity and positioning ourselves within society. 

In relation to music videos stars can become role models that inspire young children. This causes an outcry when one of them does something wrong or goes against what is normal. 

The first video is about how a pop star can become a role model for young children. The second video caused an outcry because it was very different from what Miley Cyrus used to be like. This caused outrage because people did not want her as a role model for young children to act the way she does.

Personal Relationships:
We can form a relationship with the media, and also use the media to form a relationship with others. Many people use the television as a form of companionship. This may seem sad, but think about how many times you've watched the TV on your own, or with other people but sitting in silence. The television is often quite an intimate experience, and by watching the same people on a regular basis we can often feel very close to them, as if we even know them. When presenters or characters in a soap die, those who have watched that person a lot often grieve for the character, as if they have lost a friend.

Another aspect to the personal relationships model is how we can sometimes use the media to build relationships with real people. Talking to strangers can become easier with common interests (such as TV programme)

Diversion:
The diversion need is what is commonly termed as escapism. This is what we use to escape our own lives and problems for a while to think of something else. 
In relation to music videos, we watch music videos to take our mind of our every day lives, we want to distract our self from the problems we are experiencing. We want to see that people experience the same feelings as we do and want to forget about our own problems and focus on some one else's. 

Criticisms of this theory: 

Len Ang criticised the theory in three aspects. 

The first is "It is highly individualistic, taking into account only the individual psychological gratification derived from individual media use. The social context of the media use tends to be ignored. This overlooks the fact that some media use may have nothing to do with the pursuit of gratification - it may be forced upon us for example"

The second "There is relatively little attention paid to media content, researchers attending to why people use the media, but less to what meanings they actually get out of their media use"

The third "The approach starts from the view that the media are always functional to people and may thus implicitly offer a justification for the way the media are currently organized."

Changing Storyboard

I have chosen to change my storyboard so that It has a more interesting narrative that can be understood easily.